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Vegetarian Journal
Excerpts

Jul/Aug 1997
Volume XVI, Number 4

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The Frugal Vegetarian

by Lisa Rivero


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Check out the recipes!

"I'd like to eat better, but good food is just too expensive. And those
fancy ingredients cost a fortune."

"Since we've stopped eating meat, our grocery bills have skyrocketed.
Veggie burgers, tofu dogs, and organic potato chips are breaking our
budget."

"I don't have time to plan for shopping. More often than not I stop by a
deli or store on my way home from work to pick up ready-made items. I
wish I could plan better and spend less."

If any or all of these thoughts are familiar, you're not alone. Although
many people find that a meatless diet is naturally inexpensive, others
struggle to satisfy themselves and their families on a reasonable food
budget. If you're spending more money than you'd like on food, you may
have fallen into one of these traps:



1. The Gourmet Palate

Many cookbooks offer delicious gourmet-style vegetarian recipes that
rival foods served at the best restaurants. The problem is that you may
pay restaurant prices to purchase the necessary ingredients. If you love
to prepare gourmet foods, you don't have to give up these special meals.
Just save them for special occasions. For everyday meals, look for ways
to cut costs without greatly affecting the recipe. For example, instead
of 8 ounces of fresh shiitake mushrooms, use regular brown or white
mushrooms, perhaps with a couple shiitakes thrown in for flavor. Instead
of kalamata olives, buy regular black olives. Substitute some shredded
red cabbage for radicchio in your salad. No one but you will know that
the recipe has been altered. Cut otherwise ordinary vegetables in
exciting ways, such as celery and carrots sliced on the diagonal, or
potatoes sliced with a curvy-edged blade.

2. Paying for Convenience

Veggie burgers, tofu dogs, tofu-stuffed ravioli, soy-based "cold cuts"
... as tempting as vegetarian convenience foods are, if you're trying to
cut food bills, they are best purchased on an occasional basis. Make the
mainstays of your diet fresh vegetables, fruits, grains, and legumes,
and save the convenience foods for occasional treats. Make your own
veggie burgers with texturized soy protein (often sold under the brand
name TVP(r)), grains, or legumes. And keep on hand the ingredients for a
few "pantry meals" that can be prepared easily with non-perishable
ingredients, such as chili made with canned tomatoes, canned or frozen
beans, and frozen vegetables.



3. Too Busy to Save

You're on your way home from work and realize that once again, nothing
is planned for dinner. So you stop at the deli of a local grocery store
and pick up enough oil-based pasta salad, bread, and cookies to feed
your family of five. While you're there, you spot a new breakfast
cereal, some yummy-looking granola bars, and crackers to munch on in the
car. By the time you leave the store you're twenty dollars poorer and
mentally chiding yourself for going over the week's food budget. The
secrets to cutting your food bills are relatively simple and revolve
around three main ideas: plan ahead, buy seasonal, and think thrift.



Plan Ahead

As simple as it sounds, this is probably the most important piece of
advice for cooks trying to cut their food budgets. If you decide on a
whim to make your aunt's famous casserole for supper, you'll probably
need to make a trip to the store for last-minute ingredients. Because
you're pressed for time, you'll be less likely to shop wisely or
frugally, and you'll be more tempted to pick up "just a few extras"
while you're there. Instead, set aside about 20 or 30 minutes once a
week to draw up a list of meals for the week ahead and the ingredients
you'll need. Plan to serve plenty of fresh lettuce salads and other
easily perishable foods early in the week. When those vegetables run low
later in the week, rely on hardier produce items (broccoli, potatoes,
cabbage) or frozen vegetables. Think about how you'll use large
quantities. For example, a small family may need to plan how to use up a
bag of potatoes before they spoil (some suggestions, hash browns for
weekend breakfasts, baked potatoes to be reheated for fast weekday
lunches, and mashed potatoes or oven fries for dinner). When you go
shopping, bring both the ingredient list and the menu, and don't
hesitate to substitute fresher, cheaper produce when possible.


Enjoy Seasonal Fruits and Vegetables

Savor apples, parsnips, pumpkins, and winter squash in the fall; fortify
yourself with citrus fruits and plenty of leafy greens in the winter;
treat yourself to asparagus, new potatoes, and bibb lettuce in the
spring; and enjoy the bounty of berries, tomatoes, eggplant, green and
red bell peppers, and zucchini during those hot days of summer. The next
time you go shopping, talk to your store's produce manager about what
produce is in season and on what day of the week the shipments usually
arrive. Vegetables and fruits purchased at their freshest will keep
longer in your refrigerator and be less likely to spoil before you get a
chance to use them.



Think Thrift

Thrift means more than just saving money. It also means using resources
wisely, without waste. Broccoli stems can be shredded to use in slaws,
sliced for stir fries, or cut into sticks for munching raw. Leftover
cooked rice and other grains are easily turned into non-dairy "milks"
for cooking and baking-just blend with water. Extra pasta can be tossed
in soup or reheated with a little olive oil and some leftover steamed
veggies for a quick lunch. To ensure that leftovers don't end up in the
garbage or compost pile, store them prominently in the front of your
refrigerator in clear containers, rather than in the back where they'll
likely be missed.

Each of the following family-style recipes can be made for about five
dollars, or, in some cases, much less. Feel free to substitute seasonal
or available vegetables and seasonings when appropriate.


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Recipes

Homemade Tomato Sauce

(Makes a little over 3 cups)
Enjoy over pasta or pizza.


1/4 cup water
1 onion, chopped
3 large cloves garlic, minced
3 cups canned or fresh chopped tomatoes with juice
One 6-ounce can tomato paste
1 Tablespoon red wine vinegar (use balsamic if you have it)
1 Tablespoon sweetener of your choice
2 teaspoons dried oregano
1 teaspoon dried basil
1 teaspoon dried thyme
Salt and black pepper to taste

In a large saucepan, bring water to a boil. Add onion, and cook,
stirring frequently, until water has evaporated. Add just enough water
to moisten the bottom of the pan, and continue to cook, adding water as
necessary and stirring often, until onions are carmelized (about 20
minutes). Add garlic, tomatoes, and tomato paste, and simmer, covered,
for 20 minutes. If necessary, add a little water to thin the sauce as it
cooks. Add remaining ingredients, and simmer 5 more minutes.

Total calories per 1 cup serving: 114
Fat: 1 gram

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Lentil and Carrot Soup

(Serves 4)
Serve with coleslaw and dinner rolls.

4 cups water or vegetable broth
1 medium onion, finely chopped
11/2 cups dry brown or green lentils, sorted and rinsed
2 cups diced carrots
1/4 cup tomato paste
3 Tablespoons molasses
1 teaspoon prepared mustard
Salt to taste

In a fairly large saucepan, bring water or vegetable broth to a boil.
Add lentils and onion, stir once, and simmer, covered, for 20 minutes.
Add carrots, and simmer, covered, for 10 to 20 more minutes, or until
carrots and lentils are tender. Stir in remaining ingredients, and heat
through.

Total calories per serving: 275
Fat: 1 gram

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Fast Chunky Chili

(Serves 6 to 8)
Serve over hot cooked brown rice, barley, or pasta.

1 Tablespoon olive oil
1 onion, chopped
1 green bell pepper, trimmed, seeded, and chopped
3 cloves garlic, minced
4 cups canned or fresh chopped tomatoes, with juice
2 teaspoons chili powder, or to taste
2 teaspoons ground cumin, or to taste
3 cups boiled or canned (drained and rinsed) kidney beans
3 cups boiled or canned (drained and rinsed) pinto beans
Water or vegetable broth as needed
Salt to taste

In a large saucepan, saute onion, green pepper, and garlic in olive oil
for 5 minutes. Add chopped tomatoes, chili powder, cumin, and beans.
Simmer, covered, for 15 minutes. For a thinner chili, add a bit of water
or vegetable broth, and heat through. Adjust seasonings.

Total calories per serving: 260
Fat: 3 grams

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Vegetable Fried Rice

(Serves 4)
Feel free to substitute chopped cabbage, halved Brussels sprouts, fresh
green peas, or other vegetables for the green beans.

1/2 cup water or vegetable broth
2 medium carrots, scrubbed or peeled and cut into matchstick pieces
2 cups green beans, trimmed and cut
diagonally in 1" pieces
1 Tablespoon peanut oil, canola oil, or
vegetable oil
4 green onions with tops, sliced in 1" pieces
3 cups cold cooked long-grain brown rice
Tamari or soy sauce to taste

In a large skillet or wok, heat water or broth to boiling. Add carrots
and green beans, and simmer, covered, until vegetables are tender.
Remove lid and cook until water is evaporated. Transfer vegetables to a
dish and add oil to the pan. Stir-fry green onions for 2 minutes. Add
rice and stir-fry 2 more minutes. Add cooked vegetables and tamari or
soy sauce. Heat through.

Total calories per serving: 234
Fat: 6 grams

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Vegetable Shepherd's Pie

(Serves 4 to 6)
This hearty dish will satisfy your hungriest diner.

4 medium potatoes, peeled and quartered
1/2 cup potato cooking liquid
1/4 teaspoon salt, or to taste
1/4 teaspoon onion powder, or to taste
8 ounces tempeh, steamed and diced, or 11/2 cups cooked or canned
  (drained and rinsed) garbanzo beans or white beans
1 cup frozen corn, thawed
1 cup frozen peas, thawed
1/3 cup smooth peanut butter
1/2 cup water or additional potato cooking
liquid
1 teaspoon all-purpose seasoning or veg-etable broth powder,
  or 1 Tablespoon tamari or soy sauce
Paprika

Place potatoes in a large saucepan, and add just enough water to cover.
Boil for 15 to 20 minutes, or until potatoes are tender. Drain potatoes,
reserving liquid. Mash cooked potatoes with hot cooking liquid, salt,
and onion powder. Add additional liquid for desired consistency. Set
aside.

Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Combine tempeh or beans, corn, and peas in
a 9" pie pan. In a separate bowl, whisk together peanut butter, water or
cooking liquid, and seasoning, broth powder or tamari until smooth. Pour
peanut butter sauce evenly over vegetables. Top with mounds of mashed
potatoes. Sprinkle with paprika, and bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until
potatoes start to brown. Serve hot or at room temperature.

Total calories per serving: 444
Fat: 15 grams

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Stuffed Manicotti in Tomato Sauce

(Serves 4)
Serve with a green salad.

1 Tablespoon olive or canola oil
1 onion, minced
3 cloves garlic, minced
10 ounces fresh spinach, chard, or kale, washed, de-stemmed, and chopped
1 pound firm tofu, divided
1/4 teaspoon nutmeg
1/4 teaspoon salt, or to taste
8 ounces dry manicotti, cooked until al dente
2 cups Homemade Tomato Sauce or your favorite purchased tomato-based
  pasta sauce.
1 cup fresh bread crumbs (process 2 slices bread in a blender or food
  processor)

Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Lightly oil a 9" x 13" baking dish. Set
aside. In a large pan, saut onion and garlic in oil for 3 minutes. Add
spinach, chard, or kale, cover, and steam until greens are wilted.
Transfer to a mixing bowl, and add half of the tofu (8 ounces),
crumbled, nutmeg, and salt. Set aside.

In a food processor, blend the remaining 8 ounces of tofu until smooth.
Add to vegetable mixture and stir to combine.

Fill cooked manicotti tubes with tofu mixture, and layer filled
manicotti in prepared pan. Pour tomato sauce evenly over everything.
Bake, covered, for 30 minutes. Sprinkle bread crumbs over the top, and
bake, uncovered, for 10 to 15 minutes, or until bread crumbs are
toasted.

Total calories per serving: 442
Fat: 11 grams

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Mini Meatless Loaves

(Serves 4)
Children may try eating these "loaves" with their hands, like muffins,
but adults will probably enjoy Mini Meatless Loaves served hot with a
side of gravy or catsup.

1 cup dry texturized soy protein granules
3/4 cup plus 2 Tablespoons boiling water
1 cup Homemade Tomato Sauce or other tomato sauce
1 cup fork-mashed cooked potatoes
1 cup rolled oats
1 Tablespoon dried minced onion, or 1
teaspoon dried onion powder
1 teaspoon dried oregano or Italian
seasoning
1/2 teaspoon dried mustard
1/4 teaspoon garlic powder
Salt and black pepper to taste

Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Oil 8 muffin cups; set aside. Combine
texturized soy protein granules and boiling water. Stir, and wait 10
minutes. In a mixing bowl, combine reconstituted granules with remaining
ingredients. Stir to mix, then spoon the mixture into prepared muffin
cups. (Pack down the top of each loaf with the back of a spoon.) Bake
for 25 to 30 minutes, or until loaves are lightly browned and begin to
pull away from the sides of the muffin cups. Wait 5 minutes before
carefully removing the loaves with a spoon.

Total calories per serving: 234
Fat: 2 grams

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Acquaculture: An Overview

Part II, By Jeanne-Marie Bartas

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Summary of Part I

In Part I of this two-part article (Vegetarian Journal, May/June 1997
issue), we looked at several aspects of aquaculture, including the
industry's management of its source and quality of water and feeds, and
scientific research in aquaculture. In this part, we will examine
regulatory issues and the environmental impacts of aquaculture. We will
then briefly suggest what the future of aquaculture will be and close
with the author's analysis and commentary.

Regulation of Aquaculture

Aquaculture is regulated on both the state and federal levels. All
aspects of fish farming, including fish rearing, harvesting (of
wild-caught fish), medication, processing, and selling are regulated,
although certain aspects are more regulated than others. The regulatory
agencies include the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Agriculture,
and the Department of Health and Human Services. In the interest of
space, we will restrict our discussion to the regulation of
therapeutants (commonly known as drugs), and the regulation of the
effluent (liquid waste water) and solid waste produced by the industry.

The topic of drug regulation should be of great concern to those who
consume fish, because the health risks associated with drug residues in
seafood are largely unknown. The concern is heightened by the fact that
most of the seafood eaten by Americans is from foreign sources. Since
the regulation of seafood safety and the number of permitted drugs in
aquaculture varies from country to country, the consumer of seafood may
be taking a risk of which he or she may not even be aware.

The topic of effluent and solid waste regulation in aquaculture is of
interest to everyone, in that these wastes impact our common
environment, especially our water and land. As regard for the
environment is becoming more and more important to many people, it will
be informative to look at how our government regulates aquaculture's
waste products.



Drugs

There are five FDA-approved drugs for use in food fish in the U.S.,
compared with fifteen in Europe and twenty-four in Japan.1 These are
Terramycin (oxytetracycline), Romet 30(orometopum sulfadimethoxine),
Finquel (tricaine methanesulfonate, or MS-222), formalin, and
sulfamerazine. Finquel is an anesthetic. Formalin is a parasiticide (a
substance which kills disease-causing agents known as parasites), and
the remaining three are antibiotics.2 Sulfamerazine is no longer
manufactured because fish culturists purchased the cheaper generic or
nonfish versions of the drug.3 Each drug is approved only for specific
species of fish. They can be legally used only in those species, at the
listed dosages, and when certain disease conditions are present.

There are so few drugs because pharmaceutical companies are often
hesitant to invest millions in order to test a drug to be used in a
relatively small industry such as the aquaculture industry. The testing
is necessary, however, according to a 1991 National Academy of Sciences
document in which it was concluded that chemicals are not effectively
controlled in aquaculture.4 Because of the lack of control, the NAS
recommended that additional studies be completed on contaminant risks,
and that all imported sea food must meet U.S. standards of safety. This
matter is complicated by the fact that many more drugs are approved for
use in aquaculture in other countries, such as Japan and those in the
European Economic Community, which export a large percent of
aquacultural products consumed in the U.S. Other problems are created as
regulations and laws differ from country to country.

The Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) at the FDA is responsible for
reviewing and approving drugs for use in animals. Its primary
enforcement priority has been concerned with drug manufacturers and
distributors. Its secondary priority is concerned with medicated feed
manufacturers. CVM, through these regulatory strategies, aims to permit
only approved drugs to be in circulation and at the recommended dosage
levels. CVM does not do routine inspections for enforcement purposes.
They do conduct "for cause" inspections (in situations where the CVM has
reason to believe that questionable practices exist) and surveillances
of drug investigators using drugs under the investigational exemption
status.5

Investigational New Animal Drug Exemptions. (INAD exemptions) permit the
testing of various types of drugs including antibiotics, general
antimicrobials (used to combat disease-causing agents), parasiticides
(used to kill parasites), anesthetics, and spawning aids (used to induce
egg-laying). CVM reviews the applications for this exemption and gives
limited permission for its use. According to Tom Bell of the FDA's
Division of Therapeutic Drugs for Animals, "INAD exemptions permit the
otherwise illegal use of an unapproved drug in studies designed to
generate data required by CVM to approve the drug."6

Previously, INAD exemption permits were occasionally issued for
"compassionate use." For example, the FDA recognized that at one time
little or no data were being generated on some compounds (such as
erythromycin) under INADs even though such data generation was required
by law.7 Sometimes, the situation is further complicated by the fact
that if the FDA revises its INAD procedures, the FDA may reverse its
decision concerning a drug which once had INAD status. Such is the case
of the drug, malachite green. Upon re-evaluation, the FDA concluded that
insufficient evidence existed for its safe, experimental use.8

According to the FDA's Tom Bell, "Before a drug can be approved for use
in fish ..., data must be submitted to CVM. The data must demonstrate
that the drug is safe and effective. These requisite data are produced
under both laboratory and productional settings. Fish tested under
production settings may be authorized by CVM, in some cases, to be
either harvested for human consumption or released into public waters.
Harvest or release, authorization will only be provided if sufficient
information has been provided to CVM from which to set a safe
investigational withdrawal period (minimum time from last drug exposure
to harvesting, during which the drug is depleted from edible tissues)."9
The data are intended to protect the health of those consuming the
previously exposed fish.

CVM has the authority to exercise discretion in deciding when to enforce
the law. So, for instance, the CVM "permits" the use of "low regulatory
priority drugs" such as salt and ice. These substances pose minor (if
any) safety concerns when used under specific conditions according to
CVM. FDA approval is not required for these drugs.10

This brief overview of drug regulation in aquaculture should give the
seafood consumer cause for concern. Many drugs used in farmed fish from
other countries have not been approved by the FDA. These fish are eaten
in the United States even though health risks associated with the drugs
are not known. Furthermore, fish which have been given experimental
drugs in this country may be sold on the market or released into public
waters. The possible health and environmental risks are not known.
Considering the potentially negative health and environmental effects,
the reader may rightly question if drug use in aquaculture is adequately
controlled.



Effluent and Solid Waste

The EPA is primarily responsible for the regulation of effluent
(discharged waste water) and solid waste produced by aquaculture. Some
aquacultural facilities are required to apply for a National Pollution
Discharge Elimination Systems (NPDES) permit if their waste production
is of a certain type and quantity.

According to the regulation, "concentrated aquatic animal production
facilities" are point sources of pollutants (i.e., identifiable sources
of pollution), and as such they require NPDES permits for discharges
into U.S. waters.11 These facilities include hatcheries, fish farms, or
other facilities that contain, grow, or hold aquatic animals. Facilities
are divided into three categories: (1) those which produce cold water
species; (2) those which produce warm water species; (3) any other
facility deemed by the EPA Director to be a significant contributor of
pollution to U.S. waters.

There are exemptions to the first and second categories. Those
facilities producing cold water species such as trout or salmon are
exempt if they: 1) produce less than approximately 20,000 pounds of
animals per year, or 2) feed less than 5,000 pounds of feed during the
calendar month of maximum feeding. All other facilities which discharge
at least thirty days per year must have a NPDES permit.12

Secondly, those facilities producing warm water species such As catfish
or minnows are exempt if they discharge only during periods of excess
runoff. Also exempt in this category are facilities which produce less
than 100,000 pounds of animals per year. All other facilities which
discharge at least thirty days per year must have a NPDES permit.13
Aquaculture practiced in the tidal waters of Maine is exempt from the
NPDES program.14

It is believed that these minimum standards set by the EPA will require
that most commercial cold water aquaculture facilities obtain NPDES
permits. Most warm water facilities, however, may be managed so as not
to require NPDES permits. Exemption from the NPDES permit program could
be accomplished by very large operations which time their discharges to
periods of high rainfall.15

There are also guidelines for uses of discharges into aquaculture
products (i.e., any aquatic plant or animal). These would apply to those
aquaculturists who recycle their waste water by using it as source water
for the production or maintenance of sea plants and animals.16

Despite the existence of many regulations, aquaculture will probably
remain relatively low on the priority list of the EPA as a point source
or discharger of pollution. The EPA is currently focusing its efforts on
controlling non-point sources (i.e., sources with no clearly
identifiable point of discharge). However, aquaculture facilities will
most likely be included in area-wide storm water management plans being
developed on a state-by-state basis using federal guidelines to control
pollution from non-point sources. 17 Regulatory agencies are primarily
concerned with aquaculture facilities which use open- and semi-closed
culture systems (systems which have some direct connection with open
bodies of water). These systems, including raceways (long, rectangular
areas where fish are confined) and pens, more easily pollute surface and
ground water (water beneath the earth's surface that supplies wells and
springs) than indoor, recirculating systems. Indoor systems use less
water and integrate waste water treatment into their production process.
Shellfish nurseries and grow-out operations (where fish are brought up
to market size) are not considered as having a discharge; in fact they
are often viewed as water-improving activities. They are still subject
to environmental review for leases, siting, and harvest limitations.18

Solid wastes produced by aquaculture facilities are regulated
separately. Solid wastes include fish carcasses and the suspended solids
removed from liquid waste. When the solids are removed and become
settled, sludge is formed. Some states classify and regulate sludge as
an industrial or municipal waste. Other states consider it to be an
agricultural waste because of its value as a nutrient source. Fish
carcasses are classified as either an agricultural or as a non-hazardous
solid waste.19

Sludge may be used as an agricultural crop fertilizer. Most states have
guidelines or regulations for the use of manures and other organic
wastes (including waste water). The sludge must be free of
disease-causing agents, heavy metals, and other contaminants. Composting
of the carcasses for use as a soil conditioner is becoming more popular;
sometimes it is preferred to land disposal. The carcasses may be
recycled into fish meal (mealy substance produced from fish or fish
parts) or liquid.20

Regulations of aquacultural solid waste vary from state to state. For
those states which consider settled solids and fish carcasses to be
animal manure, crop residue, or farm by-products, aquacultural solid
waste, like all agricultural waste, would be exempt from solid waste
regulation. Some states require permits for the use of sludge as
fertilizer. Small scale, non-commercial operations may be exempt from
state solid waste regulations and permit requirements if the waste is
used on-site following recommended application guidelines.21

This brief summary of pollution control in aquaculture shows that
regulation is in place. However, it seems that there are ways by which
individual aquaculturists, both large and small, can avoid regulation.
For example, very large operations which discharge waste water at
certain times of the year are not required to obtain NPDES permits.
Small-scale, non-commercial facilities may also be exempt from
regulation if they use their wastes on-site. Considering the
environmental effects of land and water pollution, the reader may
rightly question whether aquacultural effluent and solid waste are
adequately controlled.


Environmental Impacts of Aquaculture

We know that more than 50% of total world aquacultural production comes
from the coastal zone. This includes over 90% of all cultured mollusks,
crustaceans, and seaweeds.22 How does coastal aquaculture impact this
environmental zone?

Raising aquaculture species in concentrated areas causes overloading.
This means that there is more carbon and nitrogen present in the water
from fish waste products and fertilizer. The added elements result in an
increase in unwanted species and a reduction in the dissolved oxygen
essential to aquatic plants and animals.23 Environmental overloading
occurs when the environment is used so far beyond its capacity that the
area becomes "spent." What was once thriving habitat for native species
is no longer so.24  Aquaculture in developing countries has contributed
to the destruction of mangrove forests. In Brazil, for example, so much
destruction has occurred that the local climate has changed. It has
changed to such a large degree that some aquacultural operations have
had to shut down.25 Without mangrove habitat, the environment is also
degraded in other ways. For instance, without mangroves as a buffer
system, there is decreased protection of the shoreline against erosion
and storm damage. The is also loss of nursery ground for native fish and
shrimp larvae.26

Coastal aquaculture can also impact native species when cultured species
intermingle with native species. For instance, cultured animals may
escape into the wild and breed with non-farmed animals. The high
concentration of cultured fish or shellfish may lead to outbreaks of
disease which in turn spread to the wild. Use of antibiotics in fish on
farms where the concentration of aquatic animals is high could lead to a
weakening of the antibiotics' effectiveness.27 There has already been a
case of a species of sea lice which had developed resistance to drugs
used to treat it in cultured stocks.28

In developing countries, aquaculture may also have an effect on the
local human population. Intensive aquaculture has adversely affected the
livelihoods of local shrimp farmers in Southeast Asia and in Latin
America by diminishing the farmers' ability to feed themselves and their
communities. The locals' extensive techniques (methods which use minimal
technology) to produce fish are far outpaced by the techniques of
intensive (highly mechanized) aquaculture. Furthermore, the locals' fish
are bought by the intensive aquaculturists to be used in shrimp feeds.
The result for the locals is often a decrease in self-sufficiency.29

Governments, international organizations, and aquaculture associations
are recognizing the need to address these and related environmental
issues. Several proposals have been suggested with the aim of reducing
the environmental impacts of aquaculture. The proposals include the
formulation of coastal aquacultural development and management plans.
The plans include the establishment of site selection criteria and the
use of computer modeling.30 Other proposals address the issues
surrounding wastewater management. Proposed suggestions include the
following: site rotation, co-culture of species at different levels of
the food web, and reduction/rotation in the use of antimicrobials used
to kill disease-causing agents.31 These proposals aim to avoid the
problems associated with a monoculture (a crop where only one type of
plant or animal is grown), and those associated with repeated use of a
certain drug. Aquaculturists hope that these and related strategies will
alleviate the problems experienced in Western aquaculture.32 They also
hope that the strategies will prevent the reccurrence of the same
problems in countries where aquaculture is newer. The author will
comment on these proposals in the analysis at the end of the article.


The Future of Aquaculture

What will aquaculture look like in the 21st century? Here are a few
ideas based on strategies which aquaculture has developed as part of its
waste management systems.

Integrated farming is one method used by aquaculture in which nutrients
are recycled. It may take several forms, such as aquaculture-agriculture
systems. Rice-fish culture is included in this category. There are also
poultry-fish systems and soybean-fish culture. Italy boasts an
integrated lagoon management system known as vali-culture in which
traditional fishery practices, modern aquaculture, and recreational
activities co-exist.33 Aquacultural waste is an inexpensive source of
minerals and organic matter and can be used as fertilizer on cropland.
It could also be used as a nutrient source in the feeds of agricultural
animals, such as using catfish processing waste in poultry feeds.34 In
the U.S. fish processing industry, wastes are used to produce fertilizer
for crops.35 Similarly, using manures from other animals as fertilizer
in aquaculture is another example of nutrient recycling in an integrated
aquaculture-agriculture system.36

There is growing interest in using treated human waste water in
aquaculture. Such a system is already operative in Asia.37 This interest
is generated by the rapid spread of urbanization. Using human excreta in
aquaculture, as in agriculture, will close the nutrient cycle,
encompassing all members of the food web. It has been predicted that the
waste water treatment plants of large cities will become centers of food
production on a grand scale.38 Another strategy used by aquaculture to
recycle its waste products is through composting. This process could be
like that of the fisheries industry, where fisheries' wastes (offal) are
mixed with Sphagnum peat and composted. The production of the offal-peat
compost is an easy and economically feasible way to produce a
nutrient-rich fermentation medium for fungi.39 Research has also
examined the feasibility of using catfish pond sediment (pond mud) as a
growing medium for bell peppers. They found it to be quite satisfactory
as compared with field soil.40

There is, in fact, a growing connection between aquaculture and
vegetable hydroponics (the cultivation of plants without soil). This
integrated system relies on water recirculation. Therefore, it has great
potential in regions where water is scarce. The water from fish culture
provides most of the nutrients required by plants (a few are added to
the water). Nutrient uptake by plants improves water quality and can
increase fish production.41 Because chemical pesticides are very toxic
to fish, biological methods to control plant pests and diseases are
currently under investigation. Such research should be useful in
traditional agricultural systems as well. Thus far, experimental
integrated systems have produced good yields.42


Author's Analysis

This article has presented the reader with a large volume of facts and
figures. How should the reader interpret all of it? Let's look more
closely at what the facts mean.

As in Part I of this article, the facts in Part II suggest that
aquaculture, from an environmental point of view, has both positive and
negative aspects. The information on drugs is the most controversial.
The 1991 National Academy of Sciences document which concludes that
chemicals in aquaculture are not effectively controlled leads the author
to question the safety of aquacultural products. The fact that fish
which have received experimental drugs can be sold for human consumption
and released into public waters also presents a safety concern.

These facts could have very serious consequences not only for fish
eaters, but for all of us. Negative consequences could result from the
presence in the environment of uncontrolled and experimental drugs.
Residues from these drugs could be released into the water and/or food
web, eventually making their way to unsuspecting consumers. This whole
affair is worrisome. We should also point out that the large majority of
fish eaten in the U.S. is from foreign sources. As mentioned, the number
of approved drugs for aquaculture in other countries is much greater.
However, we do not know about the testing methods used to approve these
drugs, or about the potential risks associated with them. The
investigative consumer, with enough persistence, could probably find out
from the fish supplier. However, this information is not easily
accessible. It is cause for concern.

With respect to effluent regulation, the author found it interesting to
discover that most small-scale aquaculture operations are exempt from
EPA regulation. It is also noteworthy that some large-scale operations
could make themselves exempt from regulation by timing their discharge
to certain periods of the year. These facts make the author wonder if
effluent and solid waste regulation in aquaculture even exists on a
practical level. Furthermore, the fact that shellfish nurseries and
grow-out operations are not considered as having a discharge, but,
rather, are often viewed as water-improving activities, supports the
author's speculation.

When we consider on a global scale how the majority of aquaculture is
conducted, we see that aquaculture has a widespread and profound
environmental impact. As we reported in Part I of this article, members
of the World Aquaculture Society said at their 1996 Annual Conference
that aquaculture must seek to be "environmentally friendly." The author
certainly agrees with this imperative. Given the damage that aquaculture
has created in Brazilian mangrove forests, the surrounding environment,
native fish species, and local populations in the developing world,
there is no doubt that people in aquaculture need to look closely at how
to mitigate the problem.

Granted, aquaculture farmers have begun to look at its practices from an
environmental point of view. As we mentioned, there are proposals to
formulate aquaculture development and management plans. We hope that
these plans will be successful so that everyone, including the
environment, wins. However, the author is wary of over-reliance on
computer modeling as a solution to serious problems. It can in no way
perfectly account for all of the variables which are present in natural
systems. Again, we express hope that aquaculture farmers will make
prudent decisions based on these models, relying principally on past
experiences rather than predictions.

We applaud those in aquaculture for searching for ecological ways to
re-use its water and waste. Integra-ted farming and composting are
environmentally sound practices. So, too, is vegetable hydroponics.
However, aquaculture has far to go before it can be called
"environmentally friendly."


Editor's note: Vegetarians do not eat meat, fish, or fowl. The purpose
of this article is not to condemn or condone the eating of fish, but to
educate readers about the various ramifications of aquaculture.

Readers can send a self-addressed stamped envelope to VRG, P.O. Box
1463, Baltimore, MD 21203, to receive the footnotes for both Part I and
Part II of this article. If you would like a printed copy of Part I of
this article, send $3 to the above address.


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Out of the Way or On the Way?

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What's considered "out-of-the-way" varies drastically for each person.
Folks from New York City might consider Delaware out of the way, while
residents of Delaware, and most of us, for that matter, consider Montana
out of the way. But the fact is that once you are out of a major city in
any state, whether California or Arkansas, your chances of finding a
vegetarian restaurant decrease dramatically.

Don't despair. With the increasing demand for vegetarian fare you'll be
surprised to find that in some of those "out-of-the-way" spots in the
USA, there's probably a vegetarian restaurant nearby, or at least a
restaurant with a few vegetarian selections. So what kind of vegetarian
meal will you find in South Dakota, and are there vegan options in
Mississippi? Read on to find out some of the new and isolated (from
other vegetarian restaurants, that is) restaurants we've found while
compiling Vegetarian Journal's Guide to Natural Foods Restaurants in the
U.S. and Canada.

KEY: $-less than $6; $$-$6-$12; $$$-over $12

Anchorage, Alaska

Enzyme Express, 2604 Fairbanks Street
Anchorage, AK 99503 [phone]

Vegan. Vegan buffet, fresh juices and smoothies, as well as health
products. Open Monday through Saturday for lunch and dinner. Limited
service, take-out, VISA/MC, $-$$.


Telluride, Colorado

The Natural Source, 236 West Colorado Avenue
Telluride, CO 81435 [phone]

Vegan. You'll find this vegan cafe in the Colorado Rockies, at an
altitude of 8,750 feet. Eat your tempeh rueben, falafel, grilled tofu
and mushrooms, or any of the other dishes on this vegan menu in the
cafe, or take it next door to Telluride's historic Elks Park. Open daily
for three meals. Limited service, fresh juices, take-out, VISA/MC, $.


Jackson, Mississippi

The Grainery, 1800 North State Street
Jackson, MS 39202 [phone]

Vegetarian. Try the three-bean burrito, beefless burger, garden veggie
burger, or one of the other many vegan options. Vegan desserts and ice
cream available. Open Sunday through Thursday for lunch and dinner,
Friday lunch, closed Saturday. Full service, vegan options, takeout,
VISA/MC, $-$$.



Grand Forks, North Dakota

The Garden, 420 DeMers Avenue
Grand Forks, ND 58201 [phone]

Vegan. Located in "the heart of meat and potatoes country," as the
owners say; this vegan restaurant is a paradise where one can find vegan
soups, burgers, and daily specials. "From-scratch" breads and bagels
made with organic flour, and other baked goods are also available. There
is also a small vegetarian grocery. Open Monday through Thursday for
lunch and dinner, Friday lunch only. Cafeteria, smoothies, soy milk,
catering, take-out, $.



Rapid City, South Dakota

Veggies, 2050 West Main, #7
Rapid City, SD 57702 [phone]

Vegan. A different menu is featured daily at this vegan restaurant
located in a natural foods store. Open Monday through Thursday for three
meals, Friday breakfast and lunch, Sunday brunch. Limited service, fresh
juices, $.



Spearfish, South Dakota

Bay Leaf Cafe, 126 West Hudson
Spearfish, SD 57783 [phone]

Multi-ethnic. Wow! Another restaurant in South Dakota with great
vegetarian options. Try the garden burger, black bean burger, bean
burrito, tempeh with sauted veggies, or one of the other vegetarian
selections. Open daily for three meals. Full service, vegan options,
espresso/cappuccino, catering, delivery. VISA/MC/AMX/DISC, $-$$.



Brattleboro, Vermont

Peter's Juice Bar Cafe, 127 Main Street
Brattleboro, VT 05301 [phone]

Vegetarian. Enjoy a view of the Connecticut River with your spiced
seitan pocket sandwich or veggie burger. Many fresh juices and smoothies
to choose from. Open Monday through Saturday for lunch. Limited service,
vegan options, fresh juices, smoothies, $.


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Terrific Tomatoes

By Jacqueline Dunnington

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Check out the recipes!

The ancient civilizations of Central and South America have offered a
gourmet gift to the entire world-the tomato. The word itself comes
directly from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs who called their
delicacy the tomatl. The Spaniards who conquered Mexico, Central and
South America returned to Europe in the 1500s with seeds for the tomato
plant. These first seeds were for the yellow variety of the tomato, then
called pomi d'oro, or apples of gold. The Italians were among the first
Europeans to enjoy this gourmet treat; they concocted the original
tomato sauces in Florence. In the 1600s the French, and later the
English, began to include this edible plant from the New World in their
culinary arts.

After a reverse migration back to the New World, the tomato reached the
United States, where it was first scorned on the basis of a false notion
that it was poisonous. A few daring souls started to consume the tomato
in the early nineteenth century, and it has been a staple of our diet
ever since. The Supreme Court was once involved in a battle as to
whether the tomato is a fruit or vegetable. As a result, the tomato is
legally a vegetable and botanically a fruit.

There are over 500 varieties of tomato seeds available that will produce
sizes ranging from that of a grape to a "beefsteak" weighing a kilo (2.2
pounds). Tomatoes are good sources of vitamin C and vitamin A, and they
are a great source of dining pleasure.



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Recipes

Fresh Green and Red Tomato Chutney

(Yields about 2 pints)

A zesty relish adapted from the kitchens of India.

4 cups peeled and finely chopped green
tomatoes
3 cups peeled and finely chopped red tomatoes
1/2 cup rice syrup or other liquid sweetener
1 very ripe mango, peeled and finely chopped
1 scant cup apple cider vinegar
1 large yellow onion, slivered
1/2 teaspoon each ground ginger, curry, turmeric, and coriander powder
1 teaspoon each cumin and mustard seeds
Freshly-cracked pepper to taste

In a deep-sided pot, combine all ingredients. Cover; simmer over lowest
heat at least an hour, stirring often until thick. Remove from heat.
Cover and let stand until serving time. Relish can be stored in glass
jars in the refrigerator for at least four weeks.

Total calories per 2 tablespoon serving: 31
Fat: <1 gram

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Tomatoes Stuffed with Pistachio Nuts

(Serves 4)

A meal-in-one from Lebanon.

4 large tomatoes
1 cup finely chopped onion
2 cloves garlic, minced
2 teaspoons olive oil
1/2 cup shelled, chopped pistachio nuts
11/4 cups whole-wheat bread crumbs, dried and crushed
1 Tablespoon finely snipped fresh mint leaves
Freshly-cracked pepper to taste
1 cup vegetable broth

Preheat oven to 375 degrees. Prepare tomato shells by plunging whole
tomatoes in boiling water, peeling them and slicing off a bit of the
tops. Remove and pure pulp. Saut onions and garlic in oil until golden.
Remove from heat, combine with nuts, bread crumbs, pulp, and seasonings.
Fill tomatoes and set in baking dish, cover with broth and bake about 30
minutes, covered with foil first 15 minutes, then uncovered 15 minutes
longer. Baste often and serve hot or chilled.

Total calories per serving: 280
Fat: 13 grams

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Double Tomato and Roasted Pepper Sauce

(Serves 4-6)

A luscious, flavorful sauce for your favorite pasta.

2 cups crushed tomatoes
1/2 cup finely chopped sun-dried tomatoes
1/2 cup white wine or water
1 small red bell pepper, seeded and
quartered
1 small green bell pepper, seeded and
quartered
1/2 cup finely chopped white onion
2 cloves garlic, minced
2 or 3 shallots, peeled and minced
1 Tablespoon olive oil
Large pinch each dried, crumbled basil and rosemary
Freshly-cracked pepper to taste
Salt to taste (optional)

Soak crushed and sun-dried tomatoes in wine or water for one hour.
Preheat broiler, set peppers (skin side out and flattened with your
fingers) in broiling pan 4 inches below flame, cook until skin blackens,
and remove from heat. Seal in paper bag for 10 minutes, remove, rinse
under running tap water, remove peel, and chop finely. In a deep-sided
pot, saut onion, garlic, and shallots in oil until soft. Add all crushed
tomatoes, sun-dried tomatoes and liquid, peppers, and seasonings.
Simmer, covered, 20 minutes. Stir occasionally. Serve hot over pasta.

Total calories per serving (without pasta): 115
Fat: 4 grams

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Tomato, Corn and Squash Fricassee

(Serves 4)
A simple delight, fresh from the garden.

1 cup finely chopped red onion
1 large clove garlic, minced
1 Tablespoon corn or olive oil
4 large, ripe tomatoes, chopped
1 zucchini (about 12 inches long), sliced
1 yellow squash (about 12 inches long), sliced
1 cup thinly sliced raw or frozen okra
1 cup low-salt tomato juice
Large pinch each of dried chives, basil, and parsley
Salt or salt substitute and freshly-cracked
pepper to taste
1 cup cooked brown rice

Heat oil in a deep-sided soup pot; brown chopped onion with garlic. Add
all vegetables, seasonings, and juice. Lower heat, cover, and simmer for
about 25 minutes. Add rice and mix well. Cook until rice is heated
through and serve in deep bowls with salt-free crackers.

Total calories per serving: 172
Fat: 5 grams


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Cold Curried Tomato and Corn Soup

(Serves 4)
An easy to prepare, hearty soup.

4 cups peeled and chopped very ripe tomatoes
1 cup finely chopped sweet red onion
1/2 cup seeded and slivered green pepper
1 teaspoon each curry powder and cumin seeds
Freshly-cracked pepper to taste
1 cup fresh, frozen, or canned corn kernels, drained
Garnish: 2 Tablespoons finely snipped fresh chives

Combine all ingredients (except corn and chives) in a blender or food
processor and blend until smooth. Stir in corn and chives. Serve hot or
chilled with rice cakes or pita bread.

Total calories per serving: 109
Fat: 1 gram

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Tomato, White Bean, and Orange Salad

(Serves 4)
An innovative combination of flavors and textures.


2 large, ripe tomatoes, peeled and cut into very thin wedges
1 cup cooked white beans, drained
1/2 cup fresh orange segments
1/2 cup very finely slivered sweet onion
11/2 Tablespoons olive oil
1 Tablespoon apple cider vinegar
1/4 cup finely snipped fresh cilantro leaves
Salt and freshly-cracked pepper to taste

Combine all ingredients in a large salad bowl, mix well, and serve with
crusty whole wheat bread.

Total calories per serving: 142
Fat: 6 grams

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Note from the Coordinators



Answers Aren't Always Simple


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Seven hundred Vegetarian Journal readers took time to fill out the
survey we printed in our March/April 1997 issue. We appreciate your
responses and comments. We'll report our findings after VRG's interns
have gone through all the paperwork.

One remark we received deserves response on this page since a few other
readers brought up the same point. Those of you who read the letters to
the editors we've printed in previous issues of Vegetarian Journal may
have noticed that occasionally readers are upset that we can't give them
black and white answers to some of the topics we've researched. A case
in point was the article "Why is Wine so Fined?" which ran in our
January/February 1997 issue. Several readers felt that we left them up
in the air by reporting on our research which indicated that some brands
of wine may have had animal products (such as egg whites, milk, casein,
gelatin, or isinglass) used as clarifying or fining agents. Some of you
were disappointed that we didn't immediately present a list of wines
that are definitely vegan. As we stated in our March/April 1997 issue,
few wine companies are willing to specify certain brands which they
guarantee to be vegetarian or vegan. Thus, we could only make broad
generalizations. Unfortunately, t his is often the case when we've tried
to research whether or not certain foods are truly vegan or even
vegetarian. Many companies are not willing to reveal all the ingredients
and processes they use to produce their product(s). Our goal is to
research issues as far as we can and report the findings we obtain. As a
result, we cannot always offer simple answers.

VRG staff and volunteers do extensive research for the articles we run
in this magazine. For example, research for the two-part aquaculture
article (see page 17) occurred over an extended period of time. Jeanne
Bartas started her preliminary research at the Enoch Pratt Free Library
in Baltimore where she read past issues of Aquaculture Magazine. These
magazines gave her a general orientation to the subject. At the
University of Maryland, Baltimore County library, she found a microfiche
of congressional hearings regarding aquaculture. She learned about
regulatory issues concerning aquaculture from these proceedings.
Jeanne's search also led her to the National Agricultural Library in
Beltsville, MD. Here she located books, scientific journal articles, and
proceedings of governmental and professional conferences on this
subject. Jeanne also interviewed Mr. Tom Bell of the FDA's Division of
Therapeutic Drugs for Animals; Mr. Dan Turlizzi, a water quality
specialist with the University of Maryland Sea Grant Program; and Mr.
Bradley Powers, the Assistant Secretary of the Maryland Department of
Agriculture's Office of Marketing and Aquaculture Development. Mr.
Powers provided the author with a four-hour tour of an active
aquaculture facility in Maryland. All these individuals had an
opportunity to review and comment on this two-part article before it
went to press. The net result is a well-researched piece based on facts.
What makes Vegetarian Journal and The Vegetarian Resource Group unique
from many other activist groups is that we do not simply report on what
the "movement" perceives as the truth, rather we endlessly search for
the facts. New and changing information will always appear. We hope
readers appreciate our efforts.

Debra Wasserman & Charles Stahler

Coordinators of The Vegetarian Resource Group




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Vegetarian Action: The Art of Vegetarianism

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For the past several years, the Vegetarian Journal has been fortunate to
have the drawings of Vonnie Crist grace its pages. Her work is colorful
and inspired, and these pages are all the better because of her artistic
contributions. In addition to her drawing pursuits (she has also
provided the illustrations for many VRG books), Vonnie is also an
accomplished writer of poetry and fiction. She's been published all over
the world and has had some of her work translated into foreign
languages.

Last year, the combination of her two main artistic endeavors, drawing
and writing, resulted in the publishing of the children's book
Leprechaun Cake and Other Tales. The book, written in collaboration with
VRG co-director Debra Wasserman, is a vegan storybook/cookbook for
children from the ages of 8-11. The book contains five short stories,
each of which leads up to a gathering where food is served. Each
individual story is then followed by several recipes appropriate for the
corresponding gathering.

The book was met with acclaim, and Vonnie has spent a lot of time since
traveling to book stores where she signs copies and reads the stories to
groups of children. Recently, she's also been spending a great deal of
time speaking or reading stories at schools, reaching kids from the
pre-school to high school level. When she gives a reading, she also
brings along a variety of VRG handouts, including essay contest
information, the teenage nutrition pamphlet, and the "I Love Broccoli
and Animals" coloring book and shopping basket.

At the readings for younger children, Vonnie reads and draws pictures
from Leprechaun Tales. When she's asked to speak to older kids, it's
usually to talk about creative writing or in a "Career Day" capacity
where she discusses her work as a writer and an artist. Her
vegetarianism is always part of the discussion, but it's always subtly
presented. "You don't have to scream it, you just have to say it," says
Vonnie. "And you say a lot just by living a certain way."

During her school visits, Vonnie finds the handouts to be well received.
"Sometimes, especially in rural areas, a person might not even know any
other vegetarians," she says. "The literature lets them know that The
VRG is out there, and I encourage them to write or call."

"A lot of them don't know what the options are," she continues. "I'm
just presenting another option, another alternative."

When asked how parents respond to their children's interest in her book,
Vonnie says, "They [parents] tend to be interested mainly in the fact
that they [children] are looking at healthy food, and that the kids are
reading. Getting children to read is really important."

Kids frequently ask Vonnie how her parents react to their daughter being
a vegetarian. "They're happy with any choice that I make that's healthy
for me," she responds. She also tells the kids that her father is a
hunter. "That's his choice," she tells them. "I do not make that choice.
As you get older, you might decide to make different choices than your
parents, and that's okay too."

Vonnie practices that tolerance at home, too. Her husband and her three
children all eat meat to some degree. Her family does agree to use only
cruelty-free health and beauty products. "Some choices require so little
of us," says Vonnie. "Using cruelty-free products is one of them."

Growing up, Vonnie never really liked the taste of meat, and she loved
animals. It was only a matter of time before she started trading the
meat on her plate for her siblings' vegetables. Now, she has a sister
who has also made the choice to be vegetarian. "Sometimes I'll make
extra portions of some recipes and pop it into the freezer so I can
share it with her the next time I see her," Vonnie relates.

Vonnie also speaks to seniors and to other interested groups. She
recently spoke to a Lion's Club dinner gathering, requesting her own
vegetarian plate at the affair. As always, her presentation is simple
and to the point without being heavy-handed or preachy. "Vegetarianism
is part of who I am, therefore, when I come to speak or tell stories,
that's part of what you're going to get. If it's an integral part of
your life, it's impossible not to present it."


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The Vegetarian Journal published here is not the complete issue, but
these are excerpts from the published magazine. Anyone wanting to see
everything should subscribe to the magazine.

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Copyright 1997 The Vegetarian Resource Group
PO Box 1463, Baltimore, MD 21203
[phone] Email: [e-mail]

Last Updated
July 8, 1997
[e-mail]

This publication is not intended to provide personal medical advice.
Medical advice should be obtained from a qualified health professional.

These articles may be reproduced for non-commercial use if left intact
and with credit given to The Vegetarian Resource Group.

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